This plan, called the State Implementation Plan SIP , details the steps the state is going to take to improve air quality and meet applicable air quality standards. We help the states develop strategies and enact regulations to include in the SIP. Strategies currently being implemented include:. States not meeting EPA's ozone standard are required to submit plans that demonstrate how they will achieve attainment of the standard.
Areas that were designated moderate nonattainment see map for the 0. Links to the attainment demonstrations submitted by the New England state are provided below. EPA is currently reviewing these submittals. In addition, EPA is required to review air quality standards every five years. On March 12, , EPA issued revisions to the ozone standard. All those effects of breathing in ozone add up to missed school and work, huge health expenditures, and premature death.
One recent study found that at concentrations seen in in the U. The World Health Organization notes that according to several European studies, daily mortality rates can rise by 0. A study using data from found as many as , deaths in China that year could be attributable to ozone, accounting for 28 percent of all respiratory deaths; in India, with about , deaths, that rate would be over 32 percent.
One study found that with current projections, in we would see a hit to the global wheat crop of as much as 26 percent, with other crops like soybeans not far behind. Another study found that in , nearly half of representative ecosystems around the world were exposed to ozone levels that posed ecological risks, and predicted this would increase by There are also more downstream ideas that amount to basically scrubbing ozone or its precursors from the air; one study showed that planting trees around urban areas could help reduce the ozone burden, perhaps at a lower cost than for the more industry-centered technology approaches.
Though some industries continue to push back against what they consider expensive fixes, others, prodded by regulations seeking to reduce ozone pollution, have already made huge gains.
Regulatory agencies, in their efforts to limit production of the pollutant, must pick a target number, and then hold localities or polluters responsible when they fail to hit it. Over the years, the number set by the U. Environmental Protection Agency has changed : the first regulation in started at 80 ppb for all photochemical oxidants of which ozone has the most impact , but that was bumped up to ppb in before dropping back to 80 in Since then, a growing body of scientific evidence regarding harm has suggested the need to reduce further: The revision brought the limit to 75 ppb, and a version dropped it again, down to 70 ppb.
The European Union has a standard of 60 ppb. The problem with debating these sorts of numbers is that, unfortunately, any amount of ozone appears to be bad for us. The 70 ppb standard, according to EPA calculations , would avoid as many as premature deaths in the U. The new standard was finalized in , but the EPA recently has attempted to delay its implementation, an attempt that was fought off through lawsuits and public outcry.
China has instituted some aggressive pollution reduction policies, but continued growth in transportation and various industrial sectors may hinder progress toward cleaner air. Average ozone exposure to Chinese citizens rose by 17 percent from to , suggesting an additional 12, premature deaths per year.
The country, he says, is rapidly starting to institute policies aimed at fixing its pollution problems. Other countries have laid a blueprint that could help the most polluted cities in Asia.
The reduction in ODS emissions expected as a result of compliance with the Montreal Protocol has been estimated globally at giga-tonnes of CO 2 -equivalent between and Velders et al. In contrast, the reduction target of greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto Protocol assuming full compliance by all developed countries is estimated at giga-tonnes of CO 2 -equivalent on average per year between and , compared to base-year emissions.
The phasing out of climate-changing ODS under the Montreal Protocol has therefore avoided greenhouse gas emissions by an amount times larger than the target of the Kyoto Protocol for The reduction of ODS emissions is not a uniformly positive story. In fact it has indirectly led to new problems. Fluorinated gases F-gases have been introduced as substitutes for ODS in many sectors such as refrigeration and air conditioning applications. These gases do not deplete the ozone layer, but they are greenhouse gases.
This means that these new gases also contribute to climate change. And to make matters worse, these F-gases often have a far larger impact on the climate than 'traditional' greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide CO 2.
For example, some F-gases have a greenhouse effect that is up to 23 times more powerful than the same amount of carbon dioxide. Fortunately, the emissions of F-gases are far smaller than those of CO 2 , but the use of F-gases and their presence in the atmosphere have increased since the s.
As a result, the significant contribution of the Montreal Protocol to fighting climate change is in danger of being wiped out by the growing importance of F-gas emissions. There are two approaches to reducing F-gas emissions.
The first approach is to avoid the use of F-gases completely by using gases or technologies that are less damaging to the climate. The second approach is to reduce the use of F-gases in products and equipment. The EU first set out specific policies to reduce F-gas emissions in with the so-called F-gas Regulation , and with a directive limiting F-gases used in air conditioners in cars, the so-called MAC Directive.
In the absence of this legislation, F-gas emissions were projected to increase Figure 2, orange line. A revised F-gas Regulation was adopted in which will lead to significant additional savings figure 2, blue line due largely to the following new measures:. Expected total cumulative avoided emissions are estimated to be 1. Because F-gases contribute to climate change, businesses are now looking to replace them with other substances.
Alternatives that do not damage the ozone layer or contribute to climate change have become available over recent years in a variety of applications such as refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing and aerosols. Many of these alternatives lead also to higher energy efficiency which is important as the indirect emissions from energy use during the lifespan of a product are often considerably higher than direct emissions of F-gases. Measures that further limit the use and emissions of HFCs are therefore needed.
Within the EU, ensuring a full implementation of the new F-gas Regulation and in particular the phasing down of HFCs that it envisages is critically important.
And even though most ODS are being phased out, the Montreal Protocol still allows some quantities of ODS to be produced and used for certain niche applications e. Cost-effective alternatives in these niche applications should be developed. In addition, large quantities of ODS are still contained in old equipment refrigeration systems and air conditioners and buildings foams and will be released in to the atmosphere if not properly reclaimed and destroyed.
Measures enabling the safe recovery of remaining ODS are therefore also essential. The reported information is summarised in the following annual reports by the EEA:. Software updated on 09 November from version Code for developers.
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